A History of the Christian Church

The Ante-Nicene Age: Changes in Doctrine


I . Introduction

Though the emphasis in recent lessons has been upon the departures of the post-apostolic church from New Testament teachings concerning the organization for the church, it should not be forgotten that other changes in doctrine and practice, though perhaps more subtly and slowly, were also being made. This could only be expected. When men refuse to acknowledge, and adhere to, the authoritative pattern of the New Testament in one particular there is no reason for them to do so in other matters. Apostasy cannot long be confined to one aspect of the church. It may be that changes in the organizational structure of the church had to occur first in order to provide an avenue for further apostasies. This is to say that the basis of authority had to be shifted from the New Testament and the bishops of local churches to sources such as tradition, monarchical bishops, the clergy, and synods, for the New Testament itself contained no justification for the coming apostasies. Thus, the initial organizational changes paved the way for changes in doctrine, worship, and other practices. In confirmation of this it may be observed that those sects which are most foreign to the New Testament in their practices have sources of authority and organizations just as foreign to the New Testament.

II. Changes in Worship

A. Days of worship. The day of the week on which saints gathered for worship in the apostolic age was the first day of the week, or Sunday (Acts 20:7; I Cor. 16:1,2; Rev. 1:10). This continued to be the case after the deaths of the apostles. Eventually, Wednesday and Friday were set aside as days of fasting. Easter season became the greatest event of the year, and was considered an especially appropriate time for baptisms.

B. Lord's Supper. The Lord's Supper (which became known as the Eucharist, from the Greek verb, "eucharisteo," meaning "to give thanks") was the main focal point of the service in the post-apostolic church. Probably due to the strong influence of heathen and Jewish practices, as well as those of the mystery religions, slow but fundamental changes

began to occur in Christians' minds toward the Lord's Supper . (1) Real presence of Christ., Christians began to take more and more literally Christ's words with respect to the bread and wine, "This is My body," and "This is My blood" (Matt. 26:26-29). It gave dramatic meaning to the Lord's Supper to believe that Christ was really present in the elements, though it would be many years later before this idea would reach full bloom and it be concluded how He was present. (2) Sacrament. This is defined by a Catholic source as "a sacred sign instituted by Christ to give grace" (Life in Christ, p.161). Thus, the idea began to arise that partaking of the Lord's Supper, per se, could confer special benefits, such as forgiveness of sins, upon the partakers. Consequently, the threat of exclusion from the Lord's Supper became a powerful weapon of manipulation in the hands of the clergy. (3) Sacrifice. Again, though it took many more years to become fully developed, the idea that the observance of the Lord's Supper was a renewal of the sacrifice of Christ began to gain popularity. This thinking made a great contribution to the prestige and power of the clergy. Something fraught with such awesome importance required the special handling of skilful hands and knowledgeable minds; that is, those of "priests."

C. Veneration of "saints." The term, "saint" means "holy one" one set apart to the service of God. In the New Testament all Christians were regarded as saints (I Cor. 1:2). However, the term eventually came to be used exclusively in reference to a few pious elite who had attained a special degree of holiness by virtue of their works. Early persecutions also produced a number of martyrs. Saints and martyrs at first were honored and commemorated, but they eventually began to be prayed to and venerated. Even their relics were highly prized. This was the roots of saint-worship.

III. Baptism and Forgiveness of Sins

A. Baptism. This early became a matter of diverse and heated controversies.

(1) Formula. Whether the names of all of the Trinity were to be pronounced at baptism (Matt. 28:19), or only that of Christ (Acts 2:38), was a matter of concern. Supposedly, it was the practice of the early post-apostolic churches to immerse the candidate once for each of the three members of the Trinity.

(2) Catechumens. This was one who was receiving instruction in the faith preparatory to his baptism. This practice of deferring baptism until the candidate was properly taught was thought to protect the church from unworthy members. The period of instruction might last two or three years.

(3) Subjects. There are no references to infant baptism until an obscure one by Ireneus about 185. However, infant baptism began to be increasingly popular because infants, as much as adults, were thought to be in need of the benefits conferred through baptism.

(4) Administrants. The mid-Third Century witnessed a heated controversy over validity of heretical baptism. Out of this controversy grew additional emphasis upon the qualifications of the ones administering baptism. Hence, it became a rite to be performed by the clergy with appropriate ritualism attending it. Nonmembers were excluded from baptisms.

(5) Method. Though immersion has always prevailed in the East, it began to give way to pouring (affusion) water over the head in the West. At first it was done only in those cases which supposedly necessitated it.

B. Forgiveness of sins. (1) Unforgivable sins. This was also a matter of long and general discussion. The number and kind of unforgivable sins kept fluctuating, but renunciation of faith was perhaps the most persistent one.

(2) Absolution. Persecutions produced many disavowals of faith which, in turn, raised the question of forgiveness for those who desired restoration. Though practices differed, the right to pronounce penance (involving "making amends") and absolution (forgiveness) was ultimately granted to the clergy - another step which vastly increased their power.

The Ante-Nicene Age:  Final Struggles


I. Introduction

This lesson covers a much longer span of time than previous lessons have covered - about three hundred years (30-313 A.D.). It is a brief historical survey of the conflicts which the church experienced with the political forces arrayed against it, particularly in the latter parts of this period. Though by 313 A.D. the church had wandered in many ways from the pure and simple pattern provided for it in the New Testament, nevertheless, the basic principles of the gospel which had originally made the church an object of hatred and persecution were the ones to which it adhered and with which it triumphed when it was granted official toleration. The story of the church in the Second and Third Centuries is the story of its "final struggles" against overwhelming political and religious forces and its ultimate triumph.

To Tertullian (C. 150-225) is attributed the famous statement: "The blood of the Christians is the seed of the church." Even if the statement is not precisely correct, its sentiment carries more than a grain of truth. Just as truthful and certainly more accurately stated is that the word of God is the church's seed, which is watered by the sweat, tears, and blood of Christians (Lk. 8:11). The church began and grew in the face of severe opposition. The very nature of the gospel and of Christians who stand for it will inevitably draw forth the hostility of the unbelieving masses (II Tim. 3:12). The world will never change nor relent. Hence, when the church enjoys peace with the world, or seeks it, this is prima facie evidence that compromise on the part of the church is at work. It is noteworthy that the New Testament does not tell Christians how to avoid persecution but how to cope with it (Matt. 5:1012). The fact of the matter is that, not only does the church invite persecution, it requires it. It is one of the gospel's surest evidences of divine validity that it flourished in the midst of a most hostile environment. Beyond this, nothing purges the faithless, strengthens the faithful, and tests the mettle of Christians like persecution (Jas. 1: 2-4; I Pet. 1:6,7; 4:12,13). Not surprisingly, the New Testament never intimates that persecution is a threat to the well-being of the church (cp. Acts 8:1-4; Rev. 2:8-10).

II. Church-State Relations

A. Prior to Neronian Persecution. Part of the Roman policy toward native peoples under domination of the Empire was to allow them to retain and practice their customary religions. However, they were not allowed to proselytize Roman citizens. Neither were they allowed to introduce new religions into the Empire. Those religions which met these qualifications were known as religio licita. Naturally, Judaism was one of them. Because the Roman government did not distinguish between Jews and Christians for the first few decades of the church's existence, the latter enjoyed the legal protection of the former. However, Jewish opposition, as well as a better understanding of the church, soon set Christians apart as adherents of a new and different religion. The fact that the emperor Nero made Christians the scapegoats for the great fire which ravaged so much of Rome in 64 A.D. is indicative of the number and prominence of Christians in that city at that date.

B. Change in official attitude. The bitter and prolonged severity with which the Roman government persecuted Christians is almost legendary. Why did the Roman government become so intolerant of Christians?

(1) Christians were zealously evangelistic. Unlike the Jews and other pagan religionists, Christians were not content to leave their neighbors as they were. They wanted to convert as many people to Christ as they could.

(2) They denied the old gods and the validity of the traditional pagan religions. Though the peoples of the Roman Empire adhered to a variety of religious beliefs, they acknowledged the existence of the pagan gods and tolerated different beliefs. To them religion was merely a formality or matter of personal preference. Christians saw things far differently. Their religion was not just the best one; it was the only true one. Ironically, because of their denial of the pagan gods, Christians were often charged with atheism.

(3) Christians were reclusive. This spirit affected every aspect of their lives. (a) Religious. Because Christians refused to participate in emperor worship, the state religion, they were viewed as treasonous. (b) Political. Christians refused to participate in the political process, including the holding of offices. (c) Military. Christians refused to serve in the Roman army. (d) Social. Christians remained on the fringes of Roman society, refusing many of the amusements which were popular among Romans.

C. Roman governmental persecutions. As the church began to grow and

become better organized it became a force to be reckoned with. Thus, the church suffered intermittent persecutions from Nero to Constantine (64-313 A.D.). The severity of these persecutions depended upon who the emperor was. There were some emperors who practiced practical toleration of Christians. One of the severest persecutions occurred during the reign of Decius (249-251). The thousandth anniversary of Rome's founding, 248 A.D., found the Empire in a state of decline. Romans viewed this decline as a result of the abandonment of the old pagan gods. Consequently, Decius was induced to sign edicts which brought the church under severe persecution. Perhaps the worst persecution occurred during the reign of Diocletian (284-305). Not only were church buildings and Scriptures burned, and church leaders slain, but ordinary Christians were ferreted out, tortured, enslaved, or put to death if they refused to give up their faith.

D. Triumph of the gospel. None of the Roman persecutions succeeded in stamping out the church. It only continued to grow. In the confusion that followed Diocletian's abdication and death a young Roman official arose and saw the futility of fighting the church. Instead, Constantine determined to embrace the church and use it for the benefit of the Empire. Shortly before the decisive battle which brought him victory and undisputed mastery of the Empire, as legend has it, he was told in a dream, "By this sign you will conquer." This sign, , was composed of the first two letters in the name of Christ. In 313 Constantine issued the famous "Edict of Milan" which granted full legality and freedom to the church. The gospel had survived its bitterest enemies and was triumphant in the hearts of believers.