A History of the Christian Church

The Ante-Nicene Age: Monarchianism


I. Introduction

Probably no controversy among so-called "Christians" has been waged so long, so bitterly, and so seemingly irresolvably as the controversy pertaining to the person, nature, and work of Christ. These issues have led to the recognition of a branch of theology known as Christology — which addresses itself to the relationship of the divine and human natures in Christ and His relationship to the Father and the Holy Spirit within the Trinity. Volumes have been written on this one aspect of the gospel alone, and a wide variety of Christological views have been adopted and advocated through the centuries. At the very core of the Christian's faith is his conception of the person, nature, and work of Christ. Therefore it behooves him to know what the Scriptures teach on these subjects and form his convictions accordingly.

II. Three Christologies

A. Logos" Christology. "Logos" is the Greek term, translated "word," which John uses to refer to Christ who was God manifested in the flesh (Jn. 1:1,14; I Jn. l:1; Rev. 19:13). "Logos" Christology asserts that the one God is a trinity ("three in one") which consists of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Since the Son and the Holy Spirit emanate from the Father, they are subordinate to Him. Jesus had a two-fold nature — human and divine. However, Christ existed as part of the Godhead before, during, and after His incarnation. Tertullian (c. 150-225), who championed these views, had been a Carthaginian lawyer but was converted 190-195. About 200 he broke with the "Catholic" church and embraced Montanism. He was the first ecclesiastical writer of prominence to use Latin and thus became known as the "father of Latin theology."

B. Dynamic Monarchianism. Undoubtedly, Gnosticism's attacks upon the Christians' conceptions of the nature of Christ stimulated a more studious attention to this subject. However, the common believers had great difficulty in distinguishing between the concept of a Trinity and outright polytheism. Many of them found an alternative in Monarchianism, or Unitarianism, which asserted that God was only one being. The Monarchians were divided into two, quite different classes. The Dynamic Monarchians held that Jesus became the Son of God by adoption — that at His baptism the Christ, or the holy Spirit, or some divine power (Greek "dumanis"), descended upon Him. Some Dynamic Monarchians were unwilling to give Jesus any title to deity, while others said He became divine in some sense at His resurrection.

C. Modalistic Monarchianism. This second class of Monarchians held that the one God manifested Himself in three different modes, of which Christ was but one temporary manifestation . A main promoter of this type of thinking was a certain Sabellius who taught in Rome in the early Third Century. He taught that the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit are one and the same. Father, "Son," and "Holy Spirit" are simply different names of the one God who manifested Himself in three different ways — the Father-lawgiver of the Old Testament, the incarnate Son, and the Holy Spirit who inspired the apostles. Sabellius was excommunicated in Rome but found large followings in North Africa and the East. After much controversy the West began to settle upon the Logos Christology, but the East continued in a divided state on these matters. Christological controversy would continue and would eventually prompt the emperor Constantine to summon the council of Nicea in 325.

The Ante-Nicene Age: Growth of the Clergy


I. Introduction

A. Definitions. There has long been a tendency on the part of religious adherents to make fundamental distinctions between the professional and common members in their ranks. In so-called Christendom this is often referred to as the clergy/laity distinction. "Clergy" is derived from the Greek word, "kleros," meaning "lot," which originally denoted the object cast by way of selecting someone to occupy an office but which eventually came to refer to the office, and then the office-holder himself. "Laity," on the other hand, is derived from the Greek term, "laos," meaning "people." Hence, "clergy" refers to the elite class which is specially selected, trained, and supported to instruct and lead the laity in those things in which they are supposedly deficient or indisposed to do themselves. The "laity" is the much larger class of unskilled, common rank and file.

B. Reasons for the clergy/laity distinction. The clergy/laity distinction serves the desires of both parties. (1) Emulation of Jewish and heathen practices. Both Jews and heathen, from whose ranks Christians came, had priestly castes which were distinct from the common people. As it has ever been the desire of men to be like those around them to enhance their standing, so it was with the growing "Catholic church." (2) Desire for proxy religion. Whether it was out of a genuine feeling of unworthiness to approach God humanly unaided, or a base desire to be relieved of personal religious responsibilities, the common people wanted special men to do for them what they could, or would, not do for themselves. (3) Desire for authority figures and professional "church managers." This

point is similar to the preceding one except that, while that one had to do with substitution in one's relations and obligations to God, this one has especially to do with one's everyday life and relations with his fellowman. The lay person wants someone to learn and interpret the rules for him — to define the faith and identify heretics. He wants someone to tell him what to do and a leader to represent and defend his faith. He also wants someone to manage the organization and maintain its good discipline. The clergy fell into these roles. (4) Human pride and greed. Man's nature calls for recognition of his achievements. Most organizations have systems of rank or hierarchy which, aside from the practical considerations, give prestige, honor, and recognition to the achievers. It was not long before those who considered themselves more righteous or diligent within the church sought the worldly recognition to which they felt entitled. This desire to be ranked above the under-achievers, combined with the laity's desire for "proxy religion," fueled the growth of the clergy/laity distinction. Furthermore, it was not long before clerical offices became lucrative, as well as prestigious.

II. The Clergy/Laity Concept

A. Official ordination. No official, formal ordination procedure for church leaders is prescribed in the Scriptures. Men who met the prescribed qualifications (I Tim. 3; Tit. 1) were appointed by the evangelist as overseers of the flock of which they were members (Acts 14:23; 20: 28; Tit. 1:5). Perhaps the closest approach to a formality was the laying on of hands (I Tim. 5:22) which was a visible recognition of their appointment to the office. However, as clerical offices became more prestigious and worldly-important, the appointments to such offices were considered too important to be left to the evangelists and laity. Bishops began to be nominated and approved by other bishops who were members of other congregations. They were then ratified or elected by the congregations they were to serve, although congregational elections became more and more token. Then, presbyters and deacons began to be ordained by the bishops.

B. The "orders." The stratified ranks of the clergy were composed of two orders.

(1) Major. (a) Bishops - the heads of churches, and eventually the heads of all churches in a city or district. In addition to the means mentioned in previous lessons, bishops continued to consolidate their prestige and authority by encouraging the ideas that they alone were the possessors of the miraculous gifts and they alone were qualified to lead in worship (which led to the beginning of a special priesthood). (b) Presbyters - initially identifiable with bishops but eventually fell into a subordinate and advisory role. A presbyter was sometimes placed over a church in a city which had multiple churches, but he was still amenable to the bishop of the city. (c) Deacons - men who assisted in the care of the needy. Because they answered to the bishop directly they eventually acquired influence beyond what their official station would seem to have indicated.

(2) Minor. (a) Sub-deacons - performed in the role of the deacons but were subordinate to them. (b) Readers - read the Scriptures publicly and had charge of the church's literature. (c) Acolytes - served the bishops in their official duties and processions. (d) Exorcists - had the work of casting out evil spirits. (e) Precentors were for the musical portions of a service. (f) janitors (sextons) took care of the church's buildings and yards (g) Catechists and interpreters - gave instruction and interpretation. (h) Deaconesses assisted the poor and sick, especially those of their own gender.